Chapter 8 Fracture: Microstructural Aspects
Different Fracture Modes
Materials with Different Degrees of Brittleness
Ductile Fracture
(a) Failure by shear (glide) in a pure metal. (Reprinted with permission from D. Broek, Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 3rd ed. (The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982), p. 33.) (b) A point fracture in a soft single-crystal sample of copper. (Courtesy of J. D. Embury.)
Zener-Stroh Crack
Crack Nucleation in HCP Metals
Lattice rotation due to bend planes,
Lattice rotation due to twinning,
Crack nucleation in Zn due to lattice
rotation caused by bend planes. (Courtesy
of J.J. Gilman.)
Microcrack Formation at Twins
Initiation of failure by microcrack formation in tungsten deformed at approximately 104 s−1 at room temperature. (a) Twin steps. (b) Twin steps and twin–twin intersection. (From T. Dümmer, J. C. LaSalvia, M. A. Meyers, and G. Ravichandran, Acta Mater., 46 (1998) 959.)
W-Type Cavitation
w-type cavitation at a grain-boundary triple point.
r-Type Cavitation
r-type cavitation at a grain boundary
Nucleation of a Cavity at a Second-Phase
Particle
Nucleation of a cavity at a second-phase particle in a ductile material. (Adapted with permission from B. R. Lawn and T. R. Wilshaw, Fracture of Brittle Solids (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 40.)
Dimple Fracture
Dimple fracture resulting from the nucleation, growth, and coalescence of microcavities. SEM. Note the inclusion, which served as the microcavity nucleation site.
Cup and Cone Fracture
Cup and Cone Fracture
Ductile Fracture by Void Nucleation, Growth, and Coalescence
Ductile Fracture Progression: TEM In-situ Results
Ductility vs. Volume Fraction of Second Phase
Ductility vs. volume fraction of second phase, f, for copper containing various second phase particles. The dashed line represents the prediction from the law of mixtures, assuming zero ductility for the second-phase particles. (From B. I. Edelson and W. J. Baldwin, Jr., Trans. ASM, 55 (1962) 230.)
Initiation of Void Growth by Dislocation Emission
Prismatic Loops
Shear Loops
Ductility vs. Triaxiality of Stresses
Variation of maximum plastic strain (ductility) with the degree of triaxiality: (1) theory of maximum tensile stress failure, (2) plane-strain conditions, (3) von Mises criterion, and (4) power law of plastic strain. (Adapted with permission from M. J. Manjoine, in Fracture: An Advanced Treatise, Vol. 3, H. Liebowitz, ed. (New York: Academic Press, 1971), p. 265.)
Ductile-Brittle Transition
Ductile–brittle transition in steel and the effect of loading rate.
Propagation of Transgranular Cleavage
Propagation of transgranular cleavage. (Adapted from J. R. Low, in Madrid Colloquium on Deformation and Flow of Solids (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1956), p. 60.)
Effect of Grain Size on Fracture and Yield Stress
Effect of grain size on fracture and yield stress of a carbon steel at 77 K.
Cleavage Facets
Formation of Cleavage Steps
Intergranular Fracture
Intergranular Fracture in Steel
Armstrong Criterion for Ductile to Brittle Transition
Armstrong criterion showing effect of grain size on ductile-to brittle transition temperature.
Fracture Surfaces of Copper: Effect of Doping
Fracture surface of (a) pure Cu and (b) Cu doped with 20 ppm Bi. SEM. (From D. B. Williams, M. Watanabe, C. Li, and V. J. Keast, in Nano and Microstructural Design of Advanced Materials, (Elsevier, Oxford, 2003).)
Ductile dimples
Intergranular fracture
Fracture in Composites
Effect of Crack Size on Strength of Ceramic
Strength of Some Ceramic Materials
Crack Propagation in Glass
Sources of Flaws in Ceramics
Intergranular Crack in Alumina
Intergranular crack produced by thermal shock (rapid cooling) of alumina. (See arrows.)
Voids in Alumina
Voids in AD85 alumina. (a) Scanning electron micrograph of sectioned surface at low magnification. (b) Enlarged view of one void. These voids are larger than the grains.
Toughness of Some Ceramics
Effects of Grain Size on Hardness and Strength
of Ceramics
Fracture Surface Energy of Sapphire
Fracture Surface in a Polycrystalline Ceramic
Transgranular
Intergranular
Fracture Surface in Monocrystalline Alumina (Sapphire)
Scanning electron micrograph of fracture surface in sapphire (monocrystalline alumina).
Brittle Failure by Axial Splitting
Compressive failure of a brittle material by axial splitting.
Axial Splitting and Spalling of Fragments
Schematic representation of growth of critical cracks, producing axial splitting and spalling of fragments; separate columns under compression will collapse.
Cracking from a Flaw in a Brittle Material
under Compressive Stress
(a) Schematic representation of an elliptical flaw subjected to compressive stress σc; σ1 is lateral stress. (b) Formation of “wing” cracks from ends of flaw. (c) Stresses generated by flaw of orientation ψ with compressive axis. (Adapted from M. F. Ashby and S. D. Hallam, Acta. Met., 34 (1986) 497.) (d) Circular flaw generating crack. (Adapted from C. G. Sammis and M. F. Ashby, Acta Met., 34 (1986) 511.)
Failure modes in compression for brittle materials containing spherical and flat flaws, as a function of increasing confinement. (a) Simple compression, giving failure by “axial splitting,” or “slabbing”. (b) Small confining stress, resulting in shear failure. (c) Large confining stresses providing homogeneous microcracking and a “pseudoplastic” response. (d) Zero compressive stress; the situation is identical to (a), but rotated by 90◦. (Adapted from C. G. Sammis and M. F. Ashby, Acta Met., 34 (1986) 511; and M. F. Ashby and S. D. Hallam, Acta Met., 34 (1986) 497.)
Failure Modes in Compression in a Brittle Material
Effect of Lateral Stress
Anisotropy of Elastic Properties: Effect on Fracture
Schematic showing how (a) anisotropy of elastic properties and (b) localized plastic deformation can lead to stress concentrations and (c) cracking at grain boundaries during unloading. (After M. A. Meyers, Dynamic Behavior of Materials (New York: J. Wiley, 1994), p. 559.)
Damage Initiation in Ceramics
Schematic of principal damage initiation mechanisms in SiC: (a) grain boundary debonding; (b) foreign particles, such as inclusions and voids at the grain boundaries; (c) dislocation pileups, leading to Zener-Stroh cracks; (d) twins and stacking faults; (e) dilatant crack produced by elastic anisotropy. (From C. J. Shih, M. A. Meyers, V. F. Nesterenko and S. J. Chen, Acta Mater., 40 (2000) 2399.)
Thermally Induced Cracks
Thermally induced cracks created when grains contract in an anisotropic fashion
during cooling from T1 to T2.
Thermally Induced Microcracks
Thermally induced microcracks in ceramic specimens with two grain sizes.
Brittle Fracture in Polymers
(a) Brittle fracture in a highly cross-linked thermoset (polyester). (b) Three different regions that compose the brittle fracture surface in (a).
Crazing
A series of crazes in tensile specimen of polycarbonate. (Courtesy of R.P. Kambour)
Craze Formation at a Crack Tip
Craze in a Polymer
A n incipient craze running along the diagonal of the picture. Note extended polymer
chains in the craze. AFM. (Courtesy of E. J. Kramer)
Transition between shear yielding and crazing in film blends of polypropylene oxide (PPO) and atactic polystyrene (APS) deformed 10% at room temperatur. (Used with permission from E. Baer, A. Hiltner, and H. D. Keith, Science, 235 (1987) 1015.) The APS weight percentages are shown in the lower left-hand corners. C, D, and S indicate crazing, diffuse shear, and sharp shear banding, respectively. The arrows indicate the direction of deformation.
Transition Between Shear Yielding and Crazing
Effect of Strain Rate on the Fracture Path
Effect of strain rate on the fracture path through polypropylene. At low strain rates the fracture is interspherulitic, while at high strain rates it is transspherulitic. (After J. M. Schultz, Polym. Sci. & Eng., 24 (1984) 770.)
Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Some Polymers
Fracture Energy of Some Materials
Fracture Toughness of Modified and Unmodified Epoxy
Effect of Temperature
Fracture toughness as a function of temperature of unmodified epoxy and rubber-modified epoxy. (After J. N. Sultan and F. J. McGarry, Polymer Eng. Sci., 13 (1973) 29.)