Dry Bulk Cargo Loading
بارگیری محموله فله خشک
فهرست :
1- فصل اول
مقدمه ای از حمل و نقل دریایی
نمونه ای از بنادر بزرگ نقل و انتقال کالا و انبارهای دپوی آنها
2- فصل دوم
معرفی انواع بارها در حمل و نقل دریایی
نمونه ای از جابجایی ها و کالاهای خشک در حمل و نقل دریایی
نمونه ای از تجهیزات و ماشین آلات جابجایی کالاهای
Dry Bulk Cargo Loading
انواع کشتی های حمل و نقل دریایی ، شامل کشتی های حمل کننده کالاهای خشک ، کالاهای مایع ، کانتینربرها و ….
فهرست :
فصل سوم
1- نمونه ای از تجهیزات و کانتینرهای جابجایی کالاهای مختلف از جمله ، کالاهای خشک ، مایع ، ماشین و
Dry Bulk Cargo Loading
2- انواع کشتی های حمل و نقل دریایی ، شامل کشتی های حمل کننده کالاهای خشک ، کالاهای مایع ، کانتینربرها و ….
فصل چهارم
1- طراحی مختصری از کشتی های نقل و انتقال کالا ( خشک و مایع ) در دریا
2- ایمنی و ریسک حمل و نقل کالاها در دریا و مقایسه آن با سیستمهای حمل و نقل دیگرکالاها
فصل اول
مقدمه ای بر
حمل و نقل دریایی
Maritime Transport
Issues
Dominant support of global trade:
International and seaborne trade are interrelated.
96% of the world trade is carried by maritime transportation (mass).
International trade and maritime transportation:
Interrelated.
25,000 billion tons-km are on average transported annually.
7,000 by rail and 3,000 by road.
71% of all freight shipped globally.
For every $1,000 of exports, there is one ton of freight being shipped by maritime transportation.
International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods, 1955-2005
Maritime Transport
Domains of maritime circulation
Geographical by its physical attributes:
71% of the terrestrial surface.
Strategic by its control.
Commercial by its usage.
Maritime routes
Corridors of a few kilometers in width.
Trying to avoid the discontinuities of land transport.
Function:
Obligatory points of passage, which are strategic places.
Physical constraints (coasts, winds, marine currents, depth, reefs, ice).
Political borders.
The majority of maritime circulation takes place along coastlines.
Domains of Maritime Circulation
Maritime Transport
Maritime enclaves
Countries that have difficulties to undertake maritime trade:
Not part of an oceanic domain of maritime circulation.
Requires agreements with neighboring countries:
Access to a port facility through a road, a rail line or through a river.
Not necessarily imply an exclusion from international trade:
Substantially higher transport costs.
On average 50% higher than countries that are not landlocked.
Less than 40% of the trade volume of the median coastal country.
May impair economic development.
نمونه ای از بنادر بزرگ نقل و انتقال کالا و انبارهای دپوی آنها
فصل دوم
معرفی انواع بارها در حمل و نقل دریایی
Bulk Cargo
Cargo without package
Dry bulk cargo: Coal, grain, ore, gravel loaded into the holds by cranes or clamshells or conveyor system
Liquid bulk cargo: Gasoline, edible oil, liquidified natural gas (LNG) or liquidified petroleum gas (LPG) loaded into the tank by piping system
نمونه ای از جابجایی ها و کالاهای خشک در حمل و نقل دریایی
نمونه ای از تجهیزات و ماشین آلات جابجایی کالاهای Dry Bulk Cargo Loading
انواع کشتی های حمل و نقل دریایی ، شامل کشتی های حمل کننده کالاهای خشک ، کالاهای مایع ، کانتینربرها و ….
Crude Oil Tanker: British Spirit
Official No: 703252:
Built: 1983.
Tonnage: 66,024 gross; 36,229 net; 127,778 dwt
Length: 260.99m
Breadth: 39.65m
Draft: 16.22m
Container Ship: OOCL Longbeach:
IMO No: 9243409.
Built 2003.
GRT 89,097.
Length: 322.97m,
Breath: 42.80m,
Draft: 14.528m. Container Capacity: 8,063 teu.
General cargo ship: Iron Flinders
Official N0: 854086.
Built: 1985
Gross tonnage: 13,380. DWT: 17,373Mt.
Length: 158.07m,
Breath: 23.09m,
Draft 10.102m.
Container Capacity 928 TEU.
Bulk Carrier: Iron Newcastle:
Official No: 851596.
Built 1985.
DWT: 148,140Mt.
Length 283.5m,
Breath: 47.07m,
Draft 15.901m
Liquefied Natural Gas Carrier: NorthWest Sanderling
Official No: 853416
Built: 1989.
Length: 272m,
Breath: 47.2m,
Draft: 10.95m,
LNG Capacity : 125,000 cubic metres
Categorizing Ships
Cargo Ships
Ships are generally designed for a specific reason. Cargo ships are designed to carry specific cargo and can be distinguished by the type of cargo they carry, especially since the means of handling the cargo is often highly visible.
Categorizing Ships
Cargo ships are generally one of the following types:
Bulk Cargo such as coal, wheat, cement, grain or any item moved in bulk quantities.
Break bulk cargo is cargo that may be affixed to a pallet. Palletized cargo is organized in such a way as to facilitate the loading into the ship.
Containerized cargo, is cargo enclosed into a standardized shipping container.
Liquid Cargo such as oil, molasses, chemicals are carried in bulk in large tank ships.
Roll on/ Roll Off specialized ships.
Categorizing Ships
General Cargo Ships
A general cargo ship is a ship with open cargo holds loaded vertically through hatches in the upper deck. The holds may be divided by intermediate decks called tween decks.
Categorizing Ships
Container Ships
Categorizing Ships
Barge Carrying Ships
An extension of the container ship concept is the barge-carrying ship. In this concept, the container is itself a floating vessel, usually about 60 feet long by about 30 feet wide, which is loaded aboard the ship in one of two ways: either it is lifted over the stern by a high-capacity shipboard gantry crane, or the ship is partially submerged so that the barges can be floated aboard via a gate in the stern.
Categorizing Ships
LASH SHIPS – LASH stand for Lighter
Aboard Ship. It is a specialized container ship carrying very large floating containers, or "lighters." The ship carries its own massive crane, which loads and discharges the containers over the stern.
• SEABEE -Sea-barge, a barge carrier design similar to "LASH" but which uses rollers to move the barges aboard the ship; the self-propelled loaded barges are themselves loaded on board as cargo and are considerably larger than those loaded on LASH ships
Bulk Carriers (bulker)
Bulk Carriers carry bulk cargo such as ore, coal, pulp, rock, cement, scrap metal, grain, flour, rice, fertilizers, sugar or any cargo that travels in bulk.
Oil Tankers
Crude oil is carried in oil tankers or in bulk and oil carriers (OBO ships).
LPG and LNG Carrier
Along with the great increase in numbers and size of tankers have come specialized uses of tankers for products other than oil.
فصل سوم
نمونه ای از تجهیزات و کانتینرهای جابجایی کالاهای مختلف از جمله ، کالاهای خشک ، مایع ، ماشین و Dry Bulk Cargo Loading
فصل چهارم
طراحی مختصری از کشتی های نقل و انتقال کالا ( خشک و مایع ) در دریا
Ship Design Lecture Notes
BASIC DEFINITONS AND SHIP GEOMETRY
Figure illustrates the main parts of a typical ship.
Hull: The structural body of a ship including shell plating, framing, decks and bulkheads.
Afterbody : That portion of a ship’s hull abaft midships.
Forebody: That portion of a ship’s hull forward midships.
Bow : The forward of the ship
Stern : The after end of the ship
Port :The left side of the ship when looking forward
Starboard : The right side of the ship when looking forward
Design Waterline (DWL) or Load Waterline (LWL) : The waterline at which the ship will float when loaded to its designed draught.
Moulded Surface : The inside surface of the skin, or plating, of a ship.
Forward Perpendicular (FP) : The vertical line at the point of intersection of the LWL and the forward end of the immersed part of the ship’s hull.
After Perpendicular (AP) : The vertical line at the point of intersection of the LWL and the centerline of the rudderstock.
Midships () : The point midway between the forward and after perpendiculars.
Deck Camber : The rise of the deck of the ship in going from the side to the centre. In older ships the camber curve used to be parabolic but in modern ships straight line camber curves are used or there may be no camber at all on decks.
Bilge Radius : The radius of the circular arc forming the bilge.
Flat of Keel (Half Siding) : The width of flat bottom plating on each side of the centre girder.
Deadrise (Rise of Floor) : The amount by which the line of the outer bottom plating amidships rises above the baseline. Therefore, it is the difference in height between the baseline and the point where the straight line through the bottom flat surface intersects the vertical line through the side of the moulded surface at its widest point.
Tumblehome : The amount the top of the side shell slopes back toward the centerline between the point of widest breadth and the deck at side
Parallel Middle Body : The portion of the ship over which the midship section remains unchanged. In this part of the ship water lines and buttocks have no curvature; that is, all the fore and aft lines are
Principal Dimensions
Length of Waterline (LWL) : The waterline at which the ship will float when fully loaded .
Length Overall (L OA) : The total length of the ship from one end to the other, including bow and stern overhangs.
Length Between Perpendiculars (L BP) : The distance measured parallel to the base at the level of the design waterline from the after perpendicular to the forward perpendicular.
Length Overall Submerged (L OS) : The total submerged length of the ship from one end to the other, including the bulbous bow.
Length of Parallel Middle Body (L P) : The length over which the midship section remains unchanged.
Length of Entrance (L E) : The length from the forward perpendicular to the forward end of parallel middle body, or maximum section.
Length of Run (L R) : The length from the section of maximum area or the after end of parallel middle body to waterline termination or other designated point on the stern.
Moulded Beam or Breadth (B) : The distance from the inside of plating on one side to a similar point on the other side measured at the broadest part of the ship.
Principal Dimensions
Maximum Beam or Breadth (B M) : Extreme beam (breadth), from outside to outside of the shell plating.
Breadth at Loaded Waterline (B WL) : Maximum moulded breadth at the loaded waterline.
Draught (T) : The vertical distance from the waterline at any point on the hull to the bottom of the ship.
Trim : The difference between the draughts forward and aft.
Depth Moulded (D) : The vertical distance at amidships from the baseline to the underside of the plating of the main deck.
Freeboard (f) : The vertical distance from the waterline to the deck at side. The freeboard is equal to the difference between the depth at side and the draught at any point along the ship.
Moulded Displacement : The displacement of a ship based on moulded dimensions
Total Displacement : Moulded displacement modified by adding the thickness of shell plating and the volume of appendages.
Wetted Surface : The area of the underwater hull and appendages, measured in square meters.
Displacement
The weight of water that would displaced by the volume of the hull measured on the outer surface of the shell plating below the waterline. Displacement tonnage of a vessel can be obtained directly from Archimedes’ principle by multiplying its underwater volume by the density of water.
Light ship
The lightweight tonnage of a ship is the sum of all fixed weights, i.e. hull, machinery, outfit and permanent equipment.
LS=WS+WM+WO
Deadweight
The difference between the displacement and the lightweight is the deadweight tonnage which is the sum of the weight of cargo, fuel, lubricating oil, fresh water, stores, passengers and baggage, crew and their effects.
DWT=WC+WF+WLO+WFO+ WPAS+WLUG+WCREW+WSTORE
TEU/FEU
Container Ships are designed for stowage of containers in vertical stacks or cells either within the hold of the vessel, on deck, or a combination of the two. Containers are described in "FEU's" or "TEU's".
"FEU" is a forty foot long container (Forty foot Equivalent Unit)
"TEU" is a twenty foot long container. (Twenty foot Equivalent Unit )
There are six basic types of containers.
Refrigerated containers
dry bulk containers;
rack containers for lumber, etc;
automotive containers;
livestock containers;
collapsible containers for stowing when not in use.
Cubic Capacity
Tank ships are described in terms of oil carrying capacity. Barrel (bbl)
is the standard liquid cargo unit of measurement and one barrel
consists of 42 gallons (5.515 cubic feet, 0.156 cubic meter). One ton of
fuel oil is equivalent to 6.63 barrels.
Dry bulk cargo ships may also be described in terms of Cubic Bales or
Cubic Grain. Cubic Bales is the space available for cargo measured in
cubic feet within a ship cargo hold to the inside of the cargo battens,
on the frames and to the underside of the deck beams.
Grain cubic isthe maximum space available for the cargo within a
ship's hold in cubic meter, incorporating all volume inside the shell
plating of the hull and to the underside of the upper deck plating. Grain
Cubic occupies a larger cargo volume than the ship's Bale Cubic rating.
Tonnage Measurement
Gross tonnage is the capacity of the spaces in the ship's hull and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, fuel, passengers, and crew.
Net tonnage is the gross tonnage less the spaces used for the accommodation of the ship's master, officers, crew, and the navigation and propulsion machinery.
Gross Tonnage
The gross tonnage (GT) of a ship shall be determined by the following formula:
GT = K1V
where:
V = total volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship in cubic metres
K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10 V
Regulation 4
Net Tonnage
The net tonnage (NT) of a ship shall be determined by the following formula:
in which formula
(a) the factor shall not be taken as greater than unity
Fig.1 Cargo System Overview: The colored lines show the required tasks for the trainee to accomplish the scenario.
One of the most favorite vessels in Korean shipbuilding industries, that occupies the first shipbuilding country in the world, is LNG carrier.
LNG carriers have highly sophisticated systems and the operator should be heavily trained to operate the vessel safely.
SimulationTech (STI) provides cargo/ballast simulator for LNG carriers to help training the crew members safely and economically on the ground.
1. System description
Fig.2 No.4 Cargo Tank: This sample screen shows one of the 4 Tanks on the target vessel. (138,000 cbm)
Each tanks can show tank pressure and temperature trends and vent gas analysis trends.
2. Full Featured and Easy to Use PC-based OTS
The LNG simulator from STI is a PC-based OTS (Operator Training System) which has all the required features fulfilling the instructing purpose and easy-to-use interface for the novice trainees at various experience level starting from novices to experienced ones.
Main components of the PC-based LNG simulator include ship’s hull, ballast system, cargo system, terminal operations, machinery room and inert gas plant. All the processes in tanker systems are displayed on the simulator screen using 2D animation.
Using the Microsoft Windows 2000 as the Operating System platform, the simulator can simultaneously handle several trainee workstations for common group operation training. The number of trainee workstations depends on the performance of the computers.
The essential advantages of STI’s simulator systems are that they demand less space than simulators from other vendors, highly cost-effective, and can be used on conventional computers and with standard operating systems.
Cargo/Ballast Simulator for LNG Carriers
The simulator from STI also incorporates a comprehensive load calculator system for cargo calculations such as draft, trim, heel, stability, shearing forces and bending moments.
The Load calculator system is not just a simple approximate system, but is a full featured commercial system that has hundreds of project references; the application is not limited only to LNG carriers but also VLCCs, container carriers, bulk carriers, and more.
3. On-Line Load Calculator for Loading/Unloading
Fig.3 Load Calculator – Tanks: Heights of cargo tanks and ballast tanks are given from the simulator instantly.
Draft, Trim and heel are calculated according to the heights of tanks.
Loading and unloading of the cargo and ballast change the draft, trim and heel. The heights of the cargo and ballast tanks from the simulator are instantly given to the load calculator system. From this information, draft, trim, heel and other hydrostatic values are calculated and longitudinal strength are checked. (Fig.3, 4, 5)
Draft, trim and heel information calculated from the load calculator system are given back to the simulator. The simulator updates the pressure heads according to these values.
Using the real time load calculator adds more realistic aspects to the simulator.
Fig.4 Load Calculator – Stability and Strength: Intact stability and longitudinal strength are calculated. The load calculator shows alarm when the stability or strength is out of range.
Fig.5 Loading/Unloading Monitor: Loading and unloading summary is shown on the simulator screen.
Unlike any other types of ships, LNG carriers have complicated process systems to safely handle LNG cargo at an extremely low temperature of -163℃.
Process systems in LNG carriers take care of cargo loading and unloading system, gas management system (GMS, Fig.6), and boiler-steam turbine system. The GMS handles boil-off gas (BOG) from cargo containments so that it can be safely supplied to boilers to generate steam for carious uses including propulsion.
4. Various Features Required for a LNG Carrier Simulator
Fig.6 Gas Management System (GMS)
Complication of the GMS is escalated because of various requirements: cargo tank pressure should be maintained at about 15 kPa, the amount and temperature of BOG supplied to boilers should be maintained at a predefined temperature, the amount of BOG should be controlled in conjunction with the fuel oil supplied to the
boilers, the fact that the GMS handles highly explosive gas
requires a highly sophisticated safety system, and all these
requirements imposes highly unsteady and dynamic process characteristics.
Fig.7 Nitrogen Generator
Fig.8 Inert Gas & Dry Air System
Fig.9 Insulation Space Pressure Control
Recent trends in the design and construction of LNG carriers are to install an integrated automation system (IAS) to efficiently handle the cargo handling system, GMS (Fig.6), and boiler-turbine system.
The complication of the control logics within the IAS to handle unsteady behavior of the process systems within a LNG carrier makes logic verification and control parameter tuning very difficult.
Such a difficulty is one of the reasons why a long commissioning time is needed. Therefore, a well designed and high fidelity dynamic process simulator can be used as a tool to verify various logics within the IAS, control parameter pre-tuning, and train operators in safe and efficient ways.
Fig.11 LNG Simulator Configured as Hybrid Type: LNG simulator configured with operator station, process controller and a virtual plant.
With STI’s LNG carrier simulator, training of the operators can be done with ease and efficiency. And the complicated control system of the LNG can be easily tested and checked.
STI’s LNG carrier simulator currently supports membrane type LNG carrier and following are the specifications.
5. Specification of STI’s LNG Carrier Simulator
Inert gas generation system (Fig.8), N2 generation system (Fig.7)
Cargo system including all the pieces of equipment (pumps, valves, pipelines) (Fig.1 & 2)
Ballast system including all the pieces of equipment (pumps, valves, pipelines) (Fig.10)
H/D & L/D compressors in GMS (Fig.6)
Integration of the simulator part with a full featured commercial loading computer software package to maximize the training effect and the reality for the calculation (Fig.3, 4 & 5)
Speed up factor of up to 100 times for efficient training
Graphical user interface similar to that of mimics for commercial DCS systems
(Option) Interfacing with a real Emergency Shutdown System is possible upon client's request
Fig.10 Ballast System: Trainee can manipulate pumps (upper figure) and valves in ballast tanks (lower figure)
Roll-on/Roll-off ships
Roll-on/Roll-off (or Ro/Ro) ships are ships that have specially designed ramps to allow cargo to be driven on board. A car carrier is a good example, but roll on / roll off also relates to trucks, ferry type ships and other ships providing landing ramps for the cargo.
Fast Ship Pentamaran container ship
Representing the Hull Form
The Half-Breadth Plan
The Sheer Plan
The Body Plan
The Body Plan
ایمنی و ریسک حمل و نقل کالاها در دریا و مقایسه آن با سیستمهای حمل و نقل دیگرکالاها
Port Security
Following characteristics of maritime ports make them potential target for terrorists,
Ports of encompass a large operational area and is hard to secure either from water or land.
It is practically impossible to check 100% of cargo.
Many critical coastal targets are located around the ports.
Number of stakeholders is high, with usually conflicting priorities.
Ports employ a high number of people.
Transportation facilities with high passenger concentration are located near ports.
Containerized Cargo Security
Threat
Terrorist tampering with unattended/attended cargo during the loading phase.
Vulnerabilities
Gaps in physical security around the facility,
Insufficient background checks,
Lax procedures for visitor admission,
Insufficient security training,
Improper storage of empty containers.
Consequence
– Transfer of tampered cargo to the medium of transportation.
Containerized Cargo Security
Countermeasure
No Countermeasure
Attempt
No Attempt
Attempt
No Attempt
Interception
No Interception
Interception
No Interception
Consequence
Consequence
Containerized Cargo Security
LOADING
TRANSPORT
PORT OF ORIGIN
SEA TRANSIT
DEST. PORT
Threat
Terrorist tampering at transfer points/stops in transit.
Transportation of illicit cargo transferred from the previous phase.
Vulnerabilities
Consequence
– Transfer of tampered cargo to port authorities.
– Security breaches at transfer points,
– Insufficient security training,
– Insufficient background checks,
– Frequent stops in transit,
– Lack of cargo transparency and tracking,
– Lack of anti-tampering measures.
Containerized Cargo Security
LOADING
TRANSPORT
PORT OF ORIGIN
SEA TRANSIT
DEST. PORT
Threat
Terrorist tampering with unattended/attended cargo.
Transfer of cargo that has already been tampered with.
Vulnerabilities
Consequence
– Transportation of dangerous cargo to a US port.
– Security breaches around port perimeters,
– Lack of state of the art inspection equipment,
– Low inspection rates,
– Insufficient background checks,
– Lack of cargo transparency and tracking,
– Lax access controls.
Containerized Cargo Security
LOADING
TRANSPORT
PORT OF ORIGIN
SEA TRANSIT
DEST. PORT
Targeting
Rule
Inspection
Strategy
Targeting
No Targeting
Detection
No Detection
Consequence
Consequence
Containerized Cargo Security
LOADING
TRANSPORT
PORT OF ORIGIN
SEA TRANSIT
DEST. PORT
Threat
Terrorist attack in open waters.
Transfer of cargo that has already been tampered with.
Vulnerabilities
Lack of security guidelines to combat piracy/stowaway threat,
Insufficient background checks on the crew,
Security breaches at ports visited en route.
Consequence
– Delivery of tampered cargo to a US port.
Containerized Cargo Security
LOADING
TRANSPORT
PORT OF ORIGIN
SEA TRANSIT
DEST. PORT
Threat
Transfer of cargo that has already been tampered with.
Vulnerabilities
Similar to the port of origin,
Storage of export cargo.
Consequence
– Direct and indirect economic consequences, loss of lives and psychological impact.
Policies for Risk Mitigation
1) Container Security Initiative (CSI)
Domestic Process For Targeting and Inspection
24 hour rule
NII inspection equipment
Risk assessments at foreign ports
ATS
Policies for Risk Mitigation
1) Container Security Initiative (CSI)
Overseas Process For Targeting and Inspection
Policies for Risk Mitigation
2) Customs-Trade Partnership against Terrorism (C-TPAT)
– Seeks to employ private sector’s leverage on their global
suppliers
– As of April 2005, approximately 9100 companies registered
– Participating companies’ cargo are “low-risk”
3) Operation Safe Commerce
– Seeks to increase transparency of cargo and employ state of
the art technology to prevent cargo tampering and theft
4) Megaports Initiative
– Improves radiological material and nuclear weapon detection
capabilities at foreign ports
– Currently at only two ports: Rotherdam and Pireaus
General Cargo Security
General cargo category includes liquid bulk (such as petroleum), dry bulk (such as grain, paper), and iron ore or steel loads which are not shipped in container.
General cargo ships have been used for:
– terrorism (weapons smuggling)
– smuggling of drugs and other contraband
– illegal human traffic (stowaways)
Reporting of cargo and route information for vessels less than 300 gross tons is not mandatory.
Other Border Security Issues at Ports
Infrastructure around the ports are particularly vulnerable:
1) Access to Secure Areas:
– criminal background checks
– TWIC
2) Port Perimeter:
– waterways
– critical facilities
– container storage around the ports
3) Cruise Lines:
– hijacking
– ships around 5000 passenger capacity
Coastal Security
1) Critical Coastal Targets: Bridges, national icons, oil refineries, nuclear plants…etc
2) Pleasure and Fisher Boats:
– Historically used for drug and illegal human smuggling.
– Weapons, explosives smuggling, and terrorist infiltration
3) Waterways and Underwater Security:
– Mines
– Hazardous cargo
– AIS
– Deepwater Acquisition Project
Threats Along Land Borders
1) Illegal Crossings:
Most crossings are
for economic reasons
Threats Along Land Borders
2) Illegal Drugs:
3) Terrorist Crossings: Two earlier confirmed attempts to cross the land borders,
Ahmed Ressam in 1999
Abu Maizar in 1997
Land Ports of Entry
1) People Crossing Ports of Entry:
Land Ports of Entry
2) Cargo Crossing Ports of Entry: Similar vulnerabilities as in maritime cargo case,
– Loading Phase at the Warehouse
– Land Transportation Phase
– Port of Entry
The nature of risk different along southwestern border as Mexican trucks are not allowed to operate in U.S. territory.
Loading
In transit
on a long
haul truck
Cargo dropped
on Mexican
side of the border
Cross-border
shipment on
a Mexican
drayage
Cargo dropped
on the U.S.
side of the border
In transit
on a long
haul truck
Between Ports of Entry
Border Patrol enforcement policy,
Line Watch
Line Patrol
Interior Checkpoints
TRANSPORTATION CONCEPTS
Overall transport is 21% of US economy
Often >50% of delivered IM cost
Bulk versus value
Place value
Value added
Quality retention or “do no harm”
Efficiency, luck, and risk
Transport Often exceeds 50% of delivered cost (highest except food)
Industrial Mineral Mine Shipping $ End % of
As $ per short ton $ $ User del $
Construction aggregates 4–7 2–6 6-13 27-52
Industrial glass/foundry sand 7–12 6–10 13-22 39-51
frac sand 15–12 25–40 40-52 65-75
Cement
domestic 40–50 8–14 48-64 15-24
imported 26–30 8–14 34-44 22-33
Pumice (import) 10–15 9–12 19-27 42-49
Coal 19–28 10–17 29-45 30-42
Gypsum 5–10 10–15 15-25 57-67
Feldspar (ground) 40–50 40–60 80-110 47-57
Lime 35–50 15–25 50-75 26-37
Kaolin (slurry) 30–45 20–35 50-80 45-48
GEOLOGY existence Development
TRANSPORTATION
Production
profit
MARKET
TRANSPORTATION AS MARKETING
“THE MARKETING CONCEPT”
Focus all activities towards total customer management and satisfaction
Make products consumers want vs making consumers want a product
Transportation can customer satisfaction
Industrial marketing better for IMs than consumer marketing approach
Industrial marketing focuses on customer satisfaction
IM TRANSPORT COST FACTORS
IM volume & processing
Wet or dry; bulk or packaged
Transport distance
Availability, schedule & transit time
Equipment & support facilities
…more factors
Distribution, terminal, & port facilities
Support services or lack thereof
Ex-Im tariffs, bonding & customs
Governmental & environmental regs.
Cultural or regional differences
Insurance & risk-avoidance
TRANSPORT RISK
Truck Lower Risk
Rail
Barge
Ship Higher Risk
TRUCK TRANSPORT
Unlimited year-round movement
Load & unload quickly
Operate independently with small crew
Flexible
Small lots & variable sizes
infrequent shipment
Very expensive; 10–25¢ per ton-mile
TRUCKING 2
Transports about 60% of US cargo
Highest cost per ton mile
Very flexible
Rates fixed (common carrier) or negotiation
States set common or contract carrier
Common carrier serves all = highly regulated
Contract carrier negotiates with each customer
separate, confidential contract rates
based on many economic and competitive factors
RAIL TRANSPORT
Slow; limited to track
Inflexible
Expensive, 2–4¢ per ton-mile
Time, volume, distance interaction
Railcars/service often unavailable
Railroads often difficult to deal with
Rail 2
Subsidized or nationalized except in U.S.
Haul about 25% of freight
Railroads restrict interchange points & reciprocal switching agreements with other railroads
Today most material moves under commodity, scale, or contract rates held confidential for competitive advantage
Hauls from producer to user over a single railroad are cheaper than joint-line movement
profits are shared
some expenses duplicated
Railcar service
Mingle car–100 t or less, very slow, high rates
Multiple car—1200 t or more, slow, moderate rates
Trainload–4000 t or more, cars loaded and unloaded together, fast, low rates
Unit train–contract tons per time in set number of cars, continuous turnaround service, very fast, lowest rates
Some railcar types used by IM producers are:
hopper
rapid discharge
gondola
covered
pressure differential
and special service
Railroad Cost Factors
Loading time
Volume moved
Distance
Unloading time
Rail equipment
Rail equipment owner
Competing transport
Competing rates
Value of service
BARGE TRANSPORT
Slow
Inflexible
needs river, canal or waterway and locks
oriented to large bulk cargoes
Limited access; grain season (Aug.–Nov.)
Inexpensive; 0.75–1¢ per ton-mile
Barge 2
Relatively unregulated rates; private contracts
Contracts negotiated via market forces
Inland waterways carry 12% of US freight for 2% of US freight billings
Inland waterway is about 23,200 km of which the lower 400 km are accessible to ocean-going vessels
Coastal seaways (Gulf Intracoastal Waterway from Texas to Florida is also important
The Rhine, and its feeder ports on the North Sea (Rotterdam, Antwerp, Amsterdam), connect via canal to the Danube and the Black Sea
SHIP TRANSPORT
Slow
Needs extensive infrastructure
Very inflexible
not now geared to IM cargoes
not usually a factor inland
Seasonal (grain, iron, coal, fertilizer; E↔W)
Very inexpensive; 0.1–0.15¢ per ton mile
SHIP TYPES AND SIZES
SHIPPING CONTRACT RISK
Through Rate Lower Risk
Liner
Trip Time or Voyage Charter
Contract of Affreightment
Time Charter
Bare Boat Higher Risk
…more risks
Accidents
Weather (time to avoid)
Breakdowns
Stowage errors
Port problems (either end of voyage)
Political problems
Shipping
Tramp
Voyage: single voyage, rates from spot market
Contract of affreightment: lift specific tonnage over several voyages
for a set period
Time: voyages for a specified time under direction of charterer who
bears most costs except wages, victuals, and insurance as "disponent owner"
Bare boat: charterer takes vessel for specified time, staffing and
operating it without restriction
Liner (schedule with conference)
Coastal or coaster
Short sea
Long sea
Shipping, cont.
Underutilized in past by industrial minerals
Big 3+ = wheat, iron ore, coal, (fertilizer)
Brokers critical; history of ship helpful to limit contamination and other problems
Bulk shipping
Unregulated
Cyclical
Fixtures by negotiation
Shipping, even more
Control over commodity transport greatest if shipping FOB load port and fixing a vessel
Leaves control in hands of IM producer
Ensures vessel type, contamination level,
ship-owner reliability, on-time arrival
Flexibility to respond to the freight market
Charter on a delivered basis
Cost and freight, or C&F
Leaves control in the hands of the ship-owner
Causes some uncertainty and lowers flexibility
Shipping Brokers
Cable, cargo, and ship brokers lessen risk
canvass the shipping market,
evaluate freight offers and services,
provide relatively unbiased opinions
Worldwide shipping market
cyclical
dominated by supply and demand
operates 24/7
Correct choice of discharge port is critical
based on distance to customer and transport available
shortest distance is not always the cheapest
TRENDS
Deregulation & integration
Marketing & transport distance
Just in time delivery; mostly by truck
Use of brokers, traders, trade groups
Distribution centers
Bulk or container terminals
…more trends
Use of rail & water transport
Large ships serving fewer ports
Use of containers on inland waterways
Importance of transport managers
Internet information & commerce
SUMMARY OF TRANSPORTATION TYPES
North American Perlite A transport example
Greek imports to East Coast of USA
Trans-loading from ship to railcars
Market focus reversal to West Coast
Containers to Pacific Rim
Also Gulf access (Mobile; Houston)
Panama Canal, Cape Horn